| Vivint, INC |
| Vivint, INC APX Alarm Deceptive sales tactics, now stuck in contract and unable to move service - more lies and deceit when tried to move Provo, Utah |
| 18th of Apr, 2011 by User241463 |
When my wife and I first decided to have APX Alarm installed, it was in a house that we were in the process of buying but had not actually closed on at the time. We were approached by a salesman and a technician in a door-to-door sales pitch where they told us that we could get the system for free and all we would have to do is pay for the monthly fee after that. From the start it seemed kinda fishy, so we let them in and asked for a moment to look up the company on the internet. We should have known something was amiss, but at the time the only complaints seemed to be about a dispute with APEX Alarm over the name of the company. We did not know that APX Alarm had just renamed themselves from Castlerock Security Inc (which I just learned from this website), but that explains why none of the other corrupt activity showed up when we tried to look into the company. There was nothing about dishonest business practices or poor functioning of the system, and we liked the idea of being able to control the system with our cell phones, so we went for it. After the deal fell through on the house, we had to move and are now renting. I called and asked about having the service moved and they said that would be no problem. When the technician showed up, he seemed embarrassed when he informed me that they would be charging me $100 to move the service and my contract would be extended. That did not seem right to me, so I had him call his superior and they put me on the phone. He said that the contract was being extended because they were "upgrading" my service to the newer panel, but when I asked which one was the newer panel it turns out it was the one I already had. When I asked about the $100, because I was sure that they had told me when I started the service that there would be no fee in the event of a move- he said that it was in the contract and could not do anything if the salesman who did the initial contract had said something different. The whole time I was having this conversation, the technician seemed uncomfortable with what was going on. When I hung up the phone and handed it back to him, I told him that I would not be paying for anything today and would probably have to take some sort of legal action to get out of the contract. He gave me his card, wrote his contact info on it and encouraged me to call if I needed him for anything, because he did not think that situation was right. He did ask that if anything came of it to make sure that his name was kept clear because he was trying to do the right thing. If a company's own employee is uncomfortable with what the company is doing, that tells me everything I need to know. When I got the service it was APX Alarm, now it is Vivint and by the time this and other complaints reach the masses it will be called something else. Someone needs to shut these people down.
|
|
|
|
|
| They just installed yesterday and the system isn't working because our house is so big the system can't communicate properly. I'm trying to cancel but the contract says I'll still be responsible for all the equipment to the tune of around $2, 500!!! |
|
|
|
| http://www.castlerocksecurity.com |
|
|
|
Coleoptera ( /ko?li???pt?r?/), an order commonly called Beetles, is an order of insects; from Greek ??????, koleos, "sheath"; and ??????, pteron, "wing", thus "sheathed wing", which contains more species than any other order in the animal kingdom, constituting almost 25% of all known life-forms.[1] About 40% of all described insect species are beetles (about 400, 000 species[2]), and new species are discovered frequently. Some estimates put the total number of species, described and undescribed, at as high as 100 million, but 1 million is a more likely figure.[3] The largest taxonomic family, the Curculionidae (the weevils or snout beetles), also belongs to this order .
The diversity of beetles is very wide-ranging. They are found in almost all habitats, but are not known to occur in the sea or in the polar regions. They interact with their ecosystems in several ways. They often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates. Some species are prey of various animals including birds and mammals. Certain species are agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata, the boll weevil Anthonomus grandis, the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum, and the mungbean or cowpea beetle Callosobruchus maculatus, while other species of beetles are important controls of agricultural pests. For example, beetles in the family Coccinellidae ("ladybirds" or "ladybugs") consume aphids, scale insects, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops.
Species in the order Coleoptera are generally characterized by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings (elytra). This elytra separates it from most other insect species, except for a few Hemiptera species. The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates called sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design creates the armored defenses of the beetle while maintaining flexibility. The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform, although specific organs and appendages may vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. Coleopteran internal morphology is similar to other insects, although there are several examples of novelty. Such examples include species of water beetle who use air bubbles in order to dive under the water, and can remain submerged thanks to passive diffusion allowing oxygen to transfer from the water into the bubble.
Beetles are endopterygotes, which means that they undergo complete metamorphosis, a biological process by which an animal physically develops after birth or hatching, undergoing a series of conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the its body structure. Coleopteran species have an extremely intricate behavior when mating, using such methods as pheromones for communication to locate potential mates. Males may fight for females using very elongated mandibles, causing a strong divergence between males and females in sexual dimorphism.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Distribution and diversity
3 External Morphology
3.1 Head
3.2 Thorax
3.3 Extremities
3.4 Wings
3.5 Abdomen
4 Internal Morphology
4.1 Digestive system
4.2 Nervous system
4.3 Respiratory system
4.4 Circulatory system
4.5 Excretory system
4.6 Specialized organs
5 Reproduction and development
5.1 Mating
5.2 Embryogenesis
5.3 Life Cycle
5.3.1 Egg
5.3.2 Larva
5.3.3 Pupa
6 Behavior
6.1 Locomotion
6.2 Communication
6.3 Parental care
6.4 Feeding
7 Ecology
7.1 Defense and predation
7.2 Parasitism
7.3 Pollination
7.4 Mutualism
7.5 Commensalism
8 Phylogeny and systematics
8.1 Fossil record
8.2 Evolution
8.3 Phylogeny
8.4 Taxonomy
9 Relationship to people
9.1 As pests
9.2 As beneficial
9.3 As food
9.4 In art
9.5 In ancient culture
9.6 In modern culture
10 See also
11 References
11.1 General references
11.2 Cited references
12 External links
12.1 Global
12.2 Regional
[edit]Etymology
Coleoptera comes from the Greek koleopteros, literally "sheath-wing, " from koleos meaning "sheath, " and pteron, meaning "wing." The name Coleoptera was given by Aristotle for the elytra, a hardened shield-like forewing. According to common vernacular, species of Coleoptera may go by an array of names, including fireflies, June bugs, ladybugs, weevils, and the obvious beetles.[1] The word beetle comes from the Old English word bitela, literally meaning small biter, deriving from the word bitel, which means biting.[4]
[edit]Distribution and diversity
Beetles are one of the largest orders of insects, with 350, 000–400, 000 species in four suborders (Adephaga, Archostemata, Myxophaga, and Polyphaga), making up about 40% of all insect species described. Even though classification at the family level is a bit unstable, there are about 500 recognized families and subfamilies.[1][5] One of the first proposed estimates of the total number of beetle species on the planet, based on field data rather than on catalog numbers. The technique used for his original estimate, possibly as many as 12, 000, 000 species, was criticized, and was later revised, with estimates of 850, 000–4, 000, 000 species proposed. Some 70–95% of all beetle species, depending on the estimate, remain undescribed. The beetle fauna is not equally well known in all parts of the world. For example, the known beetle diversity of Australia is estimated at 23, 000 species in 3265 genera and 121 families. This is slightly lower than reported for North America, a land mass of similar size with 25, 160 species in 3526 genera and 129 families. While other predictions show there could be as many as 28, 000 species in North America, including those currently undescribed, a realistic estimate of the little-studied Australian beetle fauna's true diversity could vary from 80, 000 to 100, 000.[6]
Patterns of beetle diversity can be used to illustrate factors that have led to the success of the group as a whole. Based on estimates for all 165 families, more than 358, 000 species of beetles have been described and are considered valid. Most species (about 62%) are in six extremely diverse families, each with at least 20, 000 described species: Curculionidae, Staphylinidae, Chysomelidae, Carabidae, Scarabaeidae, and Cerambycidae. The smaller families account for 22% of the total species - 127 families with fewer than 1000 described species and 29 families with 1000–6000 described species. So, the success of beetles as a whole is driven not only by several extremely diverse lineages, but also by a high number of moderately successful lineages. The patterns seen today indicate that beetles went through a massive adaptive radiation early in their evolutionary history, with many of the resulting lineages flourishing through hundreds of millions of years to the present. The adaptive radiation of angiosperms helped drive the diversification of beetles, as four of the six megadiverse families of beetles are primarily angiosperm-feeders:Curculionidae, Chysomelidae, Scarabaeidae, and Cerambycidae. However, even without the phytophagous groups, lineages of predators, scavengers, and fungivores are tremendously successful.[6] Coleoptera are found in nearly all natural habitats, including freshwater and marine habitats, everywhere there is vegetative foliage, from trees and their bark to flowers, leaves, and underground near roots- even inside plants in galls, in every plant tissue including dead or decaying ones.[7]
[edit]External Morphology
The morphology of a beetle, with a fiddler beetle as an example species.
A beetle, just before takeoff. The elytra and unfolding wings can clearly be seen.
Beetles are generally characterized by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings (elytra). The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates called sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design provides armored defenses while maintaining flexibility. The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform, although specific organs and appendages may vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.[1]
Scarabaeus viettei (syn. Madateuchus viettei, Scarabaeidae) showing a "shovel head" adaptation.
Head of Cephalota circumdata, showing the compound eyes and mouthparts
[edit]Head
The head, having mouthparts projecting forward or sometimes downturned, is usually heavily sclerotized and varies in size.[5] The eyes are compound and may display remarkable adaptability, as in the case of whirligig beetles (family Gyrinidae), where they are split to allow a view both above and below the waterline. Other species also have divided eyes – some longhorn beetles (family Cerambycidae) and weevils – while many have eyes that are notched to some degree. A few beetle genera also possess ocelli, which are small, simple eyes usually situated farther back on the head (on the vertex).
Beetles' antennae are primarily organs of smell, but may also be used to feel out a beetle's environment physically. They may also be used in some families during mating, or among a few beetles for defence. Antennae vary greatly in form within the Coleoptera, but are often similar within any given family. In some cases, males and females of the same species will have different antennal forms. Antennae may be clavate (flabellate and lamellate are sub-forms of clavate, or clubbed antennae), filiform, geniculate, moniliform, pectinate, or serrate.
Beetles have mouthparts similar to those of grasshoppers. Of these parts, the most commonly known are probably the mandibles, which appear as large pincers on the front of some beetles. The mandibles are a pair of hard, often tooth-like structures that move horizontally to grasp, crush, or cut food or enemies (see defence, below). Two pairs of finger-like appendages are found around the mouth in most beetles, serving to move food into the mouth. These are the maxillary and labial palpi. In many species the mandibles are sexually dimorphic, with the males' enlarged enormously compared with those of females of the same species.[5]
[edit]Thorax
The thorax is segmented into the two discernible parts, the pro- and pterathorax. The pterathorax is the fused meso- and metathorax, which are commonly separate in other insect species, although flexibly articulate from the prothorax. When viewed from below, the thorax is that part from which all three pairs of legs and both pairs of wings arise. The abdomen is everything posterior to the thorax.[1] When viewed from above, most beetles appear to have three clear sections, but this is deceptive: on the beetle's upper surface, the middle "section" is a hard plate called the pronotum, which is only the front part of the thorax; the back part of the thorax is concealed by the beetle's wings. This further segmentation is usually best seen on the abdomen.
Acilius sulcatus, a diving beetle showing hind legs adapted for life in water
[edit]Extremities
The multi-segmented legs end in two to five small segments called tarsi. Like many other insect orders beetles bear claws, usually one pair, on the end of the last tarsal segment of each leg. While most beetles use their legs for walking, legs may be variously modified and adapted for other uses. Among aquatic families – Dytiscidae, Haliplidae, many species of Hydrophilidae and others – the legs, most notably the last pair, are modified for swimming and often bear rows of long hairs to aid this purpose. Other beetles have fossorial legs that are widened and often spined for digging. Species with such adaptations are found among the scarabs, ground beetles, and clown beetles (family Histeridae). The hind legs of some beetles, such as flea beetles (within Chrysomelidae) and flea weevils (within Curculionidae), are enlarged and designed for jumping.
[edit]Wings
The elytra are connected to the pterathorax, so named because it is where the wings are connected (pteron meaning "wing" in Greek).[1] The elytra are not used for flight, but tend to cover the hind part of the body and protect the second pair of wings (alae). They must be raised in order to move the hind flight wings. A beetle's flight wings are crossed with veins and are folded after landing, often along these veins, and stored below the elytra. In some beetles, the ability to fly has been lost. These include some ground beetles (family Carabidae) and some "true weevils" (family Curculionidae), but also desert- and cave-dwelling species of other families. Many have the two elytra fused together, forming a solid shield over the abdomen. In a few families, both the ability to fly and the elytra have been lost, with the best known example being the glow-worms of the family Phengodidae, in which the females are larviform throughout their lives.
[edit]Abdomen
The abdomen is the section behind the metathorax, made up of a series of rings, each with a hole for breathing and respiration, called a spiracle; composing three different segmented sclerites: the tergum, pleura, and the sternum. The tergum in almost all species is membranous, or usually soft and concealed by the wings and elytra when not in flight. The pleura (singular: pleuron) are usually small or hidden in some species, with each pleuron having a single spiracle. The sternum is the most widely visible part of the abdomen, being a more or less scelortized segment. The abdomen itself does not have any appendages, however some species (for example, , Mordellidae) have articulating sternal lobes.[8]
[edit]Internal Morphology
A diagram showing the general internal anatomy of species of coleoptera.
[edit]Digestive system
The digestive system of beetles is primarily based on plants which they for the most part feed upon, with mostly the anterior midgut performing digestion. Although, in predatory species (for example, , Carabidae) most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In Elateridae species, the predatory larvae defecate enzymes on their prey, with digestion being extraorally.[1] The alimentary canal basically comprises of a short narrow pharynx, a widened expansion, the crop and a poorly developed gizzard. After there is a midgut, that varies in dimensions between species, with a large amount of cecum, with a hindgut, with varying lengths. There are typically four to six Malpighian tubules.[5]
[edit]Nervous system
The nervous system in beetles contains all the types found in insects, varying between different species. With three thoracic and seven or eight abdominal ganglia can be distinguished to that in which all the thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused to form a composite structure.[1]
[edit]Respiratory system
Oxygen is obtained via a tracheal system. Air enters a series of tubes along the body through openings called spiracles, and is then taken into increasingly finer fibers.[1] This bubble may be held under the elytra or it may be trapped against the body using specialized hairs. The bubble usually covers one or more spiracles so the insect can breathe air from the bubble while submerged. An air bubble provides an insect with only a short-term supply of oxygen, but thanks to its unique physical properties, oxygen will diffuse into the bubble and displacing the nitrogen, called passive diffusion, however the volume of the bubble eventually diminishes and the beetle will have to return to the surface.[9]
[edit]Circulatory system
Pumping movements of the body force the air through the system. Beetles have hemolymph instead of blood like other insect species, the open circulatory system of the beetle is driven by a tube-like heart attached to the top inside of the thorax. Some species of diving beetles (Dytiscidae) carry a bubble of air with them whenever they dive beneath the water surface.[1]
[edit]Excretory system
[edit]Specialized organs
Different glands specialize for different pheromones produced for finding mates. Pheromones from species of Rutelinea are produced from epithelial cells lining the inner surface of the apical abdominal segments or amino acid based pheromones of Melolonthinae from eversible glands on the abdominal apex. Other species produce different types of pheromones. Dermestids produce esters, and species of Elateridae produce fatty-acid-derived aldehydes and acetates.[1] For means of finding a mate also, fireflies (Lampyridae) utilized modified fat body cells woth transparent surfaces backed with reflective uric acid crystals to biosynthetically produce light, or bioluminescence. The light produce is highly efficient, as it is produced by oxidation of luciferin by the enzymes luciferase in the presence of ATP (adenosine triphospate) and oxygen, producing oxyluciferin, carbon dioxide, and light.[1]
A notable number of species have developed special glands that produce chemicals for deterring predators (see Defense and predation). The Ground beetle's (of Carabidae) defensive glands, located at the posterior, produce a variety of hydrocarbons, aldehydes, phenols, quinones, esters, and acids released from an opening at the end of the abdomen. While african carabid beetles (for example, , Anthia and Thermophilium) employ the same chemicals as ants: formic acid.[10] While Bombardier beetles have well-developed, like other carabid beetles, pygidial glands that empty from the lateral edges of the intersegment membranes between the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The gland is made of two containing chambers. The first holds hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide, with the second holding just hydrogen peroxide plus catalases. These chemicals mix and result in an explosive ejection, forming temperatures of around 100 C, with the breakdown of hydroquinone to H2 + O2 + quinone, with the O2 propelling the excretion.[1]
Tympanal organs or hearing organs, which is a membrane (tympanum) stretched across a frame backed by an air sac and associated sensory neurons, are described in two families.[11] Several species of the genus Cicindela (Cicindelidae) have ears on the dorsal surface of the first abdominal segment beneath the wing; two tribes tribes in the family Dynastinae (Scarabaeidae) have ears just beneath the pronotal shield or neck membrane. The ears of both families are to ultrasonic frequencies, with strong evidence that they function to detect the presence of bats via there ultrasonic echolocation. Even though beetles constitute a large order and live in a variety of niches, examples of hearing is surprisingly lacking in species, though it is likely that most are just undiscovered.[1]
[edit]Reproduction and development
Beetles are members of Endopterygota, which means like most other insects under complete metamorphosis, which consists of four main stages: the egg, the larva, the pupa, and the imago or adult. The larvae are commonly called grubs and the pupa are called cocoons.
[edit]Mating
Punctate flower chafers (Neorrhina punctata, Scarabaeidae) mating
Beetles may display extremely intricate behavior when mating. Pheromone communication is likely to be important in the location of a mate. Different species use different chemicals for their pheromones. Some scarab beetles (for example, , Rutelinae) utilize pheromones derived from fatty acid synthesis, while other scarab beetles use amino acids and terpenoid compounds (for example, , Melolonthinae). Another way species of Coleoptera find mates is the use of biosynthesized light, or bioluminescence. This special form of a mating call is confined to fireflies (Lampyridae) by the use of abdominal light producing organs. The males and females engage in complex dialogue before mating, identifying different species by differences in duration, flight patterns, composition, and intensity.[1]
Before mating male and females may engage in various forms of behavior. Males and females may stridulate, or vibrate the object they are on. In some species (for example, , Meloidae) the male climbs onto the dorsum of the female and stroke his antennae on her head, palps and antennae. In the genus Eupompha of said family, the males draws the antennae along the longitudinal vertex on the male. They may not mate at all if they do not perform the precopulatory ritual.[1]
Conflict can play a part in the mating rituals of species such as burying beetles (genus Nicrophorus) where conflicts between males and females rage until only one of each is left, thus ensuring reproduction by the strongest and fittest. Many male beetles are territorial and will fiercely defend their small patch of territory from intruding males. In such species, the males may often have horns on the head and/or thorax, making their overall body lengths greater than those of the females, unlike most insects. Pairing is generally short but in some cases will last for several hours. During pairing sperm cells are transferred to the female to fertilize the egg.[5]
[edit]Embryogenesis
[edit]Life Cycle
The life cycle of the stag beetle, including the 3 instars.
[edit]Egg
A single female may lay from several dozen to several thousand eggs during her lifetime. Eggs are usually laid according to the substrate the larva will feed on upon hatching. Among others, they can be laid loose in the substrate (for example, flour beetle), laid in clumps on leaves (for example, Colorado potato beetle), or individually attached (for example, mungbean beetle and other seed borers) or buried in the medium (for example, carrot weevil).
Parental care varies between species, ranging from the simple laying of eggs under a leaf to certain scarab beetles, which construct underground structures complete with a supply of dung to house and feed their young.[1] Other beetles are leaf rollers, biting sections of leaves to cause them to curl inwards, then laying their eggs, thus protected, inside.[1]
[edit]Larva
A scarabaeiform larvae known as a Curl grub.
The larva is usually the principal feeding stage of the beetle life cycle. Larvae tend to feed voraciously once they emerge from their eggs. Some feed externally on plants, such as those of certain leaf beetles, while others feed within their food sources. Examples of internal feeders are most Buprestidae and longhorn beetles. The larvae of many beetle families are predatory like the adults (ground beetles, ladybirds, rove beetles). The larval period varies between species but can be as long as several years. The larva are highly varied amongst species, with a well-developed and sclerotized head and have distinguishable thoracic and abdominal segments (usually the tenth, though sometimes the eight or ninth).[5]
Beetle larvae can be differentiated from other insect larvae by their hardened, often darkened head, the presence of chewing mouthparts, and spiracles along the sides of the body. Like adult beetles, the larvae are varied in appearance, particularly between beetle families. Beetles whose larvae are somewhat flattened and are highly mobile are the ground beetles, some rove beetles, and others; their larvae are described as campodeiform. Some beetle larvae resemble hardened worms with dark head capsules and minute legs. These are elateriform larvae, and are found in the click beetle (Elateridae) and darkling beetle (Tenebrionidae) families. Some elateriform larvae of click beetles are known as wireworms. Beetles in the families of the Scarabaeoidea have short, thick larvae described as scarabaeiform, but more commonly known as grubs.
All beetle larvae go through several instars, which are the developmental stages between each moult. In many species the larvae simply increase in size with each successive instar as more food is consumed. In some cases, however, more dramatic changes occur. Among certain beetle families or genera, particularly those that exhibit parasitic lifestyles, the first instar (the planidium) is highly mobile in order to search out a host, while the following instars are more sedentary and remain on or within their host. This is known as hypermetamorphosis; examples include the blister beetles (family Meloidae) and some rove beetles, particularly those of the genus Aleochara.
[edit]Pupa
As with all endopterygotes, beetle larvae pupate, and from this pupa emerges a fully formed, sexually mature adult beetle, or imago. Adults have an extremely variable lifespan, from weeks to years, depending on the species. In some species the pupa may go through all four forms during its development, called hypermetamorphosis (for example, , Meloidae). Pupae always have no mandibles, or adecticous. In most, the appendages are not attached to the pupae, or they are exarate; with most being obtect in form.[5]
[edit]Behavior
[edit]Locomotion
Photinus pyralis in midflight.Photinus pyralis Firefly
Aquatic beetles use several techniques for retaining air beneath the water's surface. Beetles of the family Dytiscidae hold air between the abdomen and the elytra when diving. Hydrophilidae have hairs on their under surface that retain a layer of air against their bodies. Adult crawling water beetles use both their elytra and their hind coxae (the basal segment of the back legs) in air retention, [12] while whirligig beetles simply carry an air bubble down with them whenever they dive.
The elytra allows beetles and weevils to both fly and move through confined spaces. Doings so by folding the delicate wings under the elytra while not flying, and folding their wings out just before take off. The unfolding and folding of the wings is operated by muscles attached to the wing base; as long as the tension on the radial and cubital veins remains, the wings remain straight. In day-flying species (for example, Buprestidae, Scarabaeidae), flight does not include large amounts of lifting of the elytra, having the metathorac wings extended under the lateral elytra margins.[1]
[edit]Communication
Beetles have a variety of ways to communicate. Some of which include a sophisticated chemical language through the use of pheromones. From the host tree, the mountain pine beetle have many forms of communication. They can emit both an aggregative pheromone and an anti-aggregative pheramone. The aggregative pheromone attracts other beetles to the tree, and the anti-aggregative pheromone neutralizes the aggregative pheromone. This helps to avoid the harmful effects of having too many beetles on one tree competing for resources. The mountain pine beetle can also stridulate to communicate, or rub body parts together to create sound, having a “scraper” on their abdomen that they rub against a grooved surface on the underside of their left wing cover to create a sound that is not audible to humans. Once the female beetles have arrived on a suitable pine tree host, they begin to stridulate and produce aggregative pheromones to attract other unmated males and females. New females arrive and do the same as they land and bore into the tree. As the males arrive, they enter the galleries that the females have tunneled, and begin to stridulate to let the females know they have arrived, and to also warn others that the female in that gallery is taken. At this point, the female stops producing aggregative pheromones and starts producing anti-aggregative pheromone to deter more beetles from coming.[13]
Since species of Coleoptera use environmental stimuli to communicate, they are affected by the climate. Microclimates, such as wind or temperature, can disturb the use of pheromones; wind would blow the pheromones while they ravel through the air. Stridulating can be interrupted when the stimulus is vibrated by something else.[13]
[edit]Parental care
a dung beetle rolling dung, near the giant tomb Sa Ena 'e Thomes, Sardinia, Italy
Among insect, parental care is very uncommon, only found in a few species. Some beetles also display this unique social behavior.[1] One theory states why there is parental care is that it is necessary for the survival of the larvae, protecting them from adverse environmental conditions and predators. One species, a rover beetle (Bledius spectabilis) displays both causes for parental care: physical and biotic environmental factors. Said species lives in salt marshes, so the eggs and/or larvae are endangered by the rising tide. The maternal beetle will patrol the eggs and larva and apply the appropriate burrowing behavior the keep them from flooding and from asphyxiating. Another advantage is that the mother protects the eggs and larvae from the predatory carabid beetles species Dicheirotrichus gustavi and from the parasitoid wasp species Barycnemis blediator. Up to 15% of larvae are killed by this parasitoid wasp, being only protected by maternal beetles in their dens.[14]
Some species of Dung beetles also display a form of parental care. Dung beetles, from which their name is derived, collect the feces, or "dung" and roll it into a ball, sometimes being up to 50 times their own weight; albeit sometimes it is also used to store food. Usually it is the male that rolls the ball, with the female hitch-hiking or simply following behind. In some cases the male and the female roll together. When a spot with soft soil is found, they stop and bury the dung ball. They will then mate underground. After the mating, both or one of them will prepare the brooding ball. When the ball is finished, the female lays eggs inside it, a form of mass provisioning. Some species do not leave after this stage, but remain to safeguard their offspring.[15]
Mylabris pustulata (Meloidae) feeding on the petals of Ipomoea carnea
[edit]Feeding
Besides being abundant and varied, beetles are able to exploit the wide diversity of food sources available in their many habitats. Some are omnivores, eating both plants and animals. Other beetles are highly specialized in their diet. Many species of leaf beetles, longhorn beetles, and weevils are very host-specific, feeding on only a single species of plant. Ground beetles and rove beetles (family Staphylinidae), among others, are primarily carnivorous and will catch and consume many other arthropods and small prey, such as earthworms and snails. While most predatory beetles are generalists, a few species have more specific prey requirements or preferences.[16]
Decaying organic matter is a primary diet for many species. This can range from dung, which is consumed by coprophagous species (such as certain scarab beetles of the family Scarabaeidae), to dead animals, which are eaten by necrophagous species (such as the carrion beetles of the family Silphidae). Some of the beetles found within dung and carrion are in fact predatory. These include the clown beetles, preying on the larvae of coprophagous and necrophagous insects.
[edit]Ecology
[edit]Defense and predation
Beetles may be preyed upon by other insects such as robber flies
Beetles and their larvae have a variety of strategies to avoid being attacked by predators or parasitoids. These include camouflage, mimicry, toxicity, and active defense. Camouflage involves the use of coloration or shape to blend into the surrounding environment. This sort of protective coloration is common and widespread among beetle families, especially those that feed on wood or vegetation, such as many of the leaf beetles (family Chrysomelidae) or weevils. In some of these species, sculpturing or various colored scales or hairs cause the beetle to resemble bird dung or other inedible objects. Many of those that live in sandy environments blend in with the coloration of the substrate.[10]:126 For example, the Giant African longhorn beetle (Petrognatha gigas) which resembles the moss and bark of the tree from which it feeds on.
Another defense that often uses color or shape to deceive potential enemies is mimicry. A number of longhorn beetles (family Cerambycidae) bear a striking resemblance to wasps, which helps them avoid predation even though the beetles are in fact harmless. This defense can be found to a lesser extent in other beetle families, such as the scarab beetles. Beetles may combine their color mimicry with behavioral mimicry, acting like the wasps they already closely resemble. Many beetle species, including ladybirds, blister beetles, and lycid beetles can secrete distasteful or toxic substances to make them unpalatable or even poisonous. These same species often exhibit aposematism, where bright or contrasting color patterns warn away potential predators, and there are, not surprisingly, a great many beetles and other insects that mimic these chemically protected species.[10]
Clytus arietis (Cerambycidae), a wasp mimic
Chemical defense is another important defense found amongst species of Coleoptera, usually being advertised by bright colors. Others may utilize behaviors that would be done when releasing noxious chemicals (for example, , Tenebrionidae). Chemical defense may serve purposes other than just protection from vertebrates, such as protection from a wide range of microbes, and repellents. Some species release chemicals in the form of a spray with surprising accuracy, such as ground beetles (Carabidae), may spray chemicals from their abdomen to repel predators. Some species take advantage of the plants from which they feed, and sequester the chemicals from the plant that would protect it and incorporate into their own defense. African carabid beetles (for example, , Anthia and Thermophilium) employ the same chemicals sued by ants, while Bombardier beetles have a their own unique separate gland, spraying potential predators from far distances.[10]:126
Large ground beetles and longhorn beetles may defend themselves using strong mandibles and/or spines or horns to forcibly persuade a predator to seek out easier prey.[10]:126 Many species have large protrusions from their thorax and head such as the Rhinoceros beetle, which can be used to defended themselves from predators. Many species of weevil that feed out in the open on leaves of plants react to attack by employing a "drop-off reflex." Even further, some will combine it with thanatosis, which they will close up their legs, antennae, mandibles, ect. and use their cryptic coloration to blend in with the background. Species with varied coloration do not do this as they can not camaflouge.[1]:199
[edit]Parasitism
There are over 1000 known species of beetles to be either parasitic, predatory, or commensals in the nests of ants.[17] Most beetle larvae can be considered parasites, as they feed on the plants and live inside the bark of trees and plants. Though there are a few species that are ectoparasitic to mammals, such as Platypsyllus castoris, which is affects beavers (Castor spp.). This beaver beetle parasite is a parasite as both an adult and a larva, with the appropriate modifications. They are wingless and eyeless with a striking dorso-ventral flattening. Additionally, P. castoris, has a remarkably modified antennal club, with antennomeres 3-11 shortened, globularly compacted, and partly enclosed in a scoop shaped antennomere 2, as is also found in Gyrinidae and Dryopidae.[18]
other parasites include those who are parasitoids of other invertebrates, such as the small hive beetle (Aethina tumida) infecting Honey bee hives. The larvae tunnel through comb towards stored honey or pollen, damaging or destroying cappings and comb in the process. Larvae defecate in honey and the honey becomes discolored from the feces, which causes fermentation and a frothiness in the honey; the honey develops a characteristic odor of decaying oranges. Damage and fermentation cause honey to run out of combs, destroing large portions in hives and sometimes the extracting rooms. Heavy infestations cause bees to abscond; some beekeepers have reported the rapid collapse of even strong colonies.[19] |
|
|
|
The red flour beetle is a tenebrionid beetle. It is a worldwide stored product pest.
Red flour beetles attack stored grain products (flour, cereals, pasta, biscuits, beans, nuts, etc.) causing loss and damage. They may cause an allergic response but are not known to spread disease and cause no damage to structures or furniture.
The red flour beetle is of Indo-Australian origin and less able to survive outdoors than the closely related species Tribolium confusum. It has, as a consequence, a more southern distribution, though both species are worldwide in heated premises. The adults are long-lived and may live for more than three years. |
|
|
Post your Comment
|
|
|
