| Vivint former |
| Vivint former APX Alarm Vivint, Inc. Security services peace of mind or nightmare... Awful customer Service, Coerced in trying to pin a family membe |
| 11th of Apr, 2011 by User620373 |
Our nightmare began after on or about 20 months within our 39 months contract with the new Vivint, former APX alarm company. To mention that the company changed name without event notifying us of the matter. And coincidentally enough with the Municipal changes within our state associated with false alarms and the increase in rate due to these from $75.00 to $125 to $150.00 and likewise without a customer service notification about the matter being that it is their industry. We suddenly started to experience false alarms due to motion detection. I continually left work to come home to check on the status of my home and each time things were in perfect condition. Initially I noticed that the volume from the panel each time was altered or lower from how we left it. As we will usually raise the volume, but had no signs of activity in the home. I began communication with the company with the purpose of resolving the issue or getting to the bottom of it and I was advised the following 1. that we needed to pay somewhere around $800.00 approx. to get out of the contract, 2. or refer the company to a friend or family member who could retain the contract until the end of the period of agreement the outstanding months to avoid the liability of the penalty. I advised the company that at this point I was unsatisfied with the service because no one could explain the root of the problem so I would not be able to recommend them and to prevent any allegations of the company that they were not successful in communicating with us or having inability to provide optimum service due to problem with the telephone line we proceeded to acquire a new and additional telephone line (somewhere in mid Jan 2011) the same night we were first notified about the false alarms (late that night) in order to honor the 39 months contract. We then later learned that there was apparently false alarm prior to that date, when we had a celebration at home and we had no recollection of the alarm and neither of the company contacting us about the matter. In communications with the company they advise that in order to get a repairman to our home we needed to pay the approx. $40.00 dollars amount that differ from the signed contract. We refused to have to pay anything as we did not made any changes to our lifestyle, our personal life, secured space or home prior to the malfunction or receiving false alarms. The false alarms continued few more days into the month and suddenly it then somehow stop. A police officer who visited our home advised that we insist with the company that they sent a technician to fix the problem at their expense as he advised having the same system and been able to obtain that kind of service from the company. Base on the records provided by the police department the false alarms were on average on or about one or two a day with few changes. The company accepted in sending someone to our home on or about two or four days after the alarms ceased in the month of Jan, 2011. The technician came to the home, but when I inquire about checking the motion detector he indicated that he had not been instructed to check for this one. I shared that this was weird because this was the root of the problem. We had another technician send out to our home to which we agree to and this person added another unit to our home and verified the functioning of the equipment. On or about Mid February, 2011 again the nightmare began I was contacted by an employee of the company and we proceeded to verify the emergency contact and others and who appears to be willing to help us and been very concern about the matter. This person requested that I forwarded the Municipality (Police fees bills to her in order to assist us with getting reimbursed) . We schedule another technician visit to our home per the company request and this happen the day after my conversation with the company employee. The next day or two days after my communication with this person the false alarms commenced again only this time they intensified. Supposedly, on or about10 or up to 15 or more in a day. I had requested that they sent someone other than the employees who had already visited our home and they proceeded to send the first employee who visited our home. I express my discontent and he contacted the company and another person for the day or fourth person was send out. At this point I was expecting to see a supervisor or someone who had the title and expertise in my home, but this was not the case. The company continued to insist that we shall set the alarm but not activate the away function, when in the first place this is the reason why we acquire an alarm system to know that there is protection while we are absent from home, to give us a peace of mind.
Long behold my mom got sick, the false alarms affected her at her job the employer requested that she removed them as an emergency number in case of false alarms, likewise, in my case there had been pre- existing issues in my workplace and the false alarms issue surface in one of my management and HR Predetermination meetings as this been an excuse on my part for perhaps wanting to be absent from work. Over the course of our relationship and the last two months there were many inconsistencies, such as false alarms when we were in the home and the panel had not gone off or been set on, activations of the panel even when we were at home sick and we could clearly see that nothing was occurring in the home, sometimes in intervals of every 20 min, inconsistencies in contacting the different point of contacts and emergency contacts, I continually requested the name of the owner or to be connected with the legal department in order to reach to a compromise to avoid the stress and the increase of expenses, continually police visit giving our neighbors the impression that on our residence or home there are illegal activities or others even at times abruptly, interruptions at work due to false alarm, increase in gasoline expense due to excessive trips to the home to verify the situation, increase in false alarms fees, transportations expenses due to the fact that we needed to contact customer service in order to even try to activate my system or change my password or whatever each time delaying or preventing me from arriving to my work on time no matter if I called the company an hour before my departure time from home. We even experience inability to make changes of my code even though this should be possible each time needed to contact the company, I have requested on three separate occasions an alarm history and until this date this have not been provided to me. On one occasion I was advised by one of the employee that in order to get the report they needed to call in the panel and we receive somewhere on or about 6 to 8 calls to the panel until I had to communicate with the company again to stop it because it was past midnight, and even then we have still not been provided with copy of the history. Dealing with the alarm company and system became my job after work on pretty much on a daily basis. I file a complaint with BBB in the end of March and April 7, 2011 was my deadline to submit additional update that day I contacted the company prior to providing update to the BBB as the Bureau encourage you to solve the issue with the company prior filling a complain. On 4/7/2011 I contacted the company to follow up on the outstanding invoices submitted Mid- March, 2011. I talked to Mr. Nick Welcker who advised that he were going to help me and at the end of the day that we were going to be fully paid. He contacted me on my cell phone each time all the way up to 4/10/2011 to advised that all was set there had been issued a waiver to get us paid up and Mrs. Chantal was going to contact us on Monday, 4/11/2011. In that conversation I also learned that the company decided to cancel the monitoring of my alarm system on 3/28/2011 without giving us a notification of the effective day for this to take place or that they were planning to do so. I proceeded to verify as usual by activating the system and walking in the house and indeed I got no response from the panel and likewise opening the doors. We were under the impression that they were still monitoring our home. Other than an officer coming to my home to advise that the cops were going to request for the system to be turned off due to over on or about 40 false alarms calls I was never notified of a date or a time. I had an attorney with whom I maintained communication about the matter but whom never advised me on how to solve the issue or what were my rights and never review my paperwork. As a matter of fact I am been billed by him with no idea of what I am billed for, as I have never received an invoice and he has advised me that he will not provide me with a breakdown of the expenses until may but I have a total of $1,600.00 outstanding with him as well. The company has indicated that they contacted our home in order to offer a free upgrade, but the employee had actually contacted my work on a day off and on another occasion contacted my mom who advised her that she was stepping out for a doctor appointment and mom told her to talked to me and the company employee Mrs. Chelsea Guifford hang up. I proceeded to email the company contacts to request that this person call her back but never received a call from this person. Mrs. Chantal called mom cell phone number on 4/11/2011 even though when the company had been advised due to a doctor notice that they shall limit conversation with mom, because of her health. The medical bills are all associated mom medical expenses as consequence to the false alarms. Mrs. Chantal only advised that they are going to pay only for the false alarms fees of on or about $575.00 leaving over $,2000.00 in expenses associated to false alarms outstanding.
I contacted the company on 4/12/2011 to talk to Mr. Welcker and the customer service employee after he verified all my data proceeded to hang up on me. This email was sent to the company on Mar 2, 2011 to Mrs Hadder. The present note is to follow up on our conversation about the matter on Monday, Feb 14, 2011 and likewise your call on Saturday Feb 19,2011. I apologize for not have gotten in touch with you sooner, but within the last days I have not been feeling well and my health have been compromised. Up to the last invoice I have at hand the outstanding balance base on invoice dated 2/09/2011 and with a due date of 3/11/2011 for $600.00 and this cover the days from 12/30/2010 until 1/17/2011. Each police dispatch visit with a charge of $75.00. I will be sending it to the fax number you provided, per your request to 1-801-377-4116
. With the purpose to provide you with information about the performance of the system within the last days y share that we were visited for the third time by one of your technicians on Feb. 16, 2011. Even though, I provided instructions that you sent a different technician other than the two who had visited our home. To our surprise they sent the same technician who had visited our house the first time, whom had not resolved the issue. After expressing our discontent a different person was sent out. He changed the panel and the motion detection system. But as you can appreciate or observed attached even thereafter we had false alarms. I had to leave work at 4:00 p.m. on Wednesday Feb 16, 2011 due to false alarm and they continue in the subsequent dates. On our end we have increased our monthly expenses by currently paying for a telephone line exclusively for the alarm system to avoid any discrepancies in the communication through the telephone. We have incurred in additional transportation cost due to the fact of the time that it is required to address the many discrepancies with the system resulting in having to incur in taxi expenses. As we only have one vehicle at home that serves for transportation for two individuals and if the one that drives has to stay back to interact with your technical support that result in the other having to seek other ways of transportation. We also, had to take my mother Cecilia to the emergency room at the hospital because of pain in her heart due to the many issues with the false alarms. We do not understand the root of these problems due to the fact that we enjoyed approximately 20 months of contract with a good relationship and a service that until then was normal, but within the last 2 months we have presented many contingencies. When I contacted your company last month to find out the resource to ending out contract I was advised that in order to end the contract I had to pay you approximately the amount of $800.00. So far we are unhappy with the service and this difficulties are bringing additional stress to the members of my family, it is embarrassing to us to have the police at all times at our home, we are unable to enjoyed peace and tranquility and likewise a peace of mind we interested in with this service. We have concerns that the police (Anchorage Police Department) will not respond when we really need it and also due to the excessive additional expenses and the physical effort to clear this. Not to include the problems that this present when I have to leave my place of work due to false alarms. And it is apparent that you are not providing us with the appropriate service when we are having multiple alarms. In our home there are only two adults and we are both careful when using your system. I do appreciate you taking the responsibility, however my family and I are overwhelmed and feel harassed. I will like to state that if this problem with false alarms persist we will like to request that our business relationship shall be terminated due to malfunction with us been released of any further contractual obligations in reference to #1155171. As you can see below we have requested an updated bill for the rest of February. We will forward this upon receipt. Thanks in advance for your attention to this matter and your prompt attention will be appreciated |
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The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose family (Rosaceae). It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans.
The tree originated in Western Asia, where its wild ancestor, the Alma, is still found today. There are more than 7, 500 known cultivars of apples, resulting in a range of desired characteristics. Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock.[2]
At least 55 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2005, with a value of about $10 billion. China produced about 35% of this total.[3] The United States is the second-leading producer, with more than 7.5% of world production. Iran is third, followed by Turkey, Russia, Italy and India.
Contents [hide]
1 Botanical information
1.1 Wild ancestors
1.2 Genome
2 History
3 Cultural aspects
3.1 Germanic paganism
3.2 Greek mythology
3.3 The Apple in the Garden of Eden
4 Apple cultivars
5 Apple production
5.1 Apple breeding
5.2 Apple rootstocks
5.3 Pollination
5.4 Maturation and harvest
5.5 Storage
5.6 Pests and diseases
5.7 Records
6 Commerce
7 Human consumption
7.1 Fallen apples
7.2 Apple allergy
7.2.1 Symptoms
8 Health benefits
9 References
10 External links
[edit]Botanical information
Blossoms, fruits, and leaves of the apple tree (Malus domestica)
Wild Malus sieversii apple in Kazakhstan
The apple forms a tree that is small and deciduous, reaching 3 to 12 metres (9.8 to 39 ft) tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown.[4] The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals 5 to 12 cm long and 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) broad on a 2 to 5 centimetres (0.79 to 2.0 in) petiole with an acute tip, serrated margin and a slightly downy underside. Blossoms are produced in spring simultaneously with the budding of the leaves. The flowers are white with a pink tinge that gradually fades, five petaled, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in diameter. The fruit matures in autumn, and is typically 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) in diameter. The center of the fruit contains five carpels arranged in a five-point star, each carpel containing one to three seeds.[4]
[edit]Wild ancestors
Main article: Malus sieversii
The wild ancestors of Malus domestica are Malus sieversii, found growing wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China, [5] and possibly also Malus sylvestris.[6]
See also: Fruit tree propagation
[edit]Genome
In 2010, an Italian-led consortium announced they had decoded the complete genome of the apple (Golden delicious variety).[7] It had about 57, 000 genes, the highest number of any plant genome studied to date and more genes than the human genome (about 30, 000).[8]
[edit]History
Apple cultivation in Nepal
The center of diversity of the genus Malus is in eastern Turkey. The apple tree was perhaps the earliest tree to be cultivated, [9] and its fruits have been improved through selection over thousands of years. Alexander the Great is credited with finding dwarfed apples in Kazakhstan in Asia in 328 BCE;[4] those he brought back to Macedonia might have been the progenitors of dwarfing root stocks. Winter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing, have been an important food in Asia and Europe for millennia, as well as in Argentina and in the United States since the arrival of Europeans.[9] Apples were brought to North America with colonists in the 17th century, [4] and the first apple orchard on the North American continent was said to be near Boston in 1625. In the 20th century, irrigation projects in Washington state began and allowed the development of the multibillion dollar fruit industry, of which the apple is the leading species.[4]
Until the 20th century, farmers stored apples in frostproof cellars during the winter for their own use or for sale. Improved transportation of fresh apples by train and road replaced the necessity for storage.[10][11]
[edit]Cultural aspects
Main article: Apple (symbolism)
"Brita as Iduna" (1901) by Carl Larsson
[edit]Germanic paganism
In Norse mythology, the goddess Iðunn is portrayed in the Prose Edda (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) as providing apples to the gods that give them eternal youthfulness. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson links apples to religious practices in Germanic paganism, from which Norse paganism developed. She points out that buckets of apples were found in the Oseberg ship burial site in Norway, and that fruit and nuts (Iðunn having been described as being transformed into a nut in Skáldskaparmál) have been found in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England and elsewhere on the continent of Europe, which may have had a symbolic meaning, and that nuts are still a recognized symbol of fertility in southwest England.[12]
Davidson notes a connection between apples and the Vanir, a tribe of gods associated with fertility in Norse mythology, citing an instance of eleven "golden apples" being given to woo the beautiful Gerðr by Skírnir, who was acting as messenger for the major Vanir god Freyr in stanzas 19 and 20 of Skírnismál. Davidson also notes a further connection between fertility and apples in Norse mythology in chapter 2 of the Völsunga saga when the major goddess Frigg sends King Rerir an apple after he prays to Odin for a child, Frigg's messenger (in the guise of a crow) drops the apple in his lap as he sits atop a mound.[13] Rerir's wife's consumption of the apple results in a six-year pregnancy and the Caesarean section birth of their son - the hero Völsung.[14]
Further, Davidson points out the "strange" phrase "Apples of Hel" used in an 11th-century poem by the skald Thorbiorn Brúnarson. She states this may imply that the apple was thought of by the skald as the food of the dead. Further, Davidson notes that the potentially Germanic goddess Nehalennia is sometimes depicted with apples and that parallels exist in early Irish stories. Davidson asserts that while cultivation of the apple in Northern Europe extends back to at least the time of the Roman Empire and came to Europe from the Near East, the native varieties of apple trees growing in Northern Europe are small and bitter. Davidson concludes that in the figure of Iðunn "we must have a dim reflection of an old symbol: that of the guardian goddess of the life-giving fruit of the other world."[12]
[edit]Greek mythology
Heracles with the apple of Hesperides
Apples appear in many religious traditions, often as a mystical or forbidden fruit. One of the problems identifying apples in religion, mythology and folktales is that the word "apple" was used as a generic term for all (foreign) fruit, other than berries, but including nuts, as late as the 17th century.[15] For instance, in Greek mythology, the Greek hero Heracles, as a part of his Twelve Labours, was required to travel to the Garden of the Hesperides and pick the golden apples off the Tree of Life growing at its center.[16][17][18]
The Greek goddess of discord, Eris, became disgruntled after she was excluded from the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.[19] In retaliation, she tossed a golden apple inscribed ???????? (Kalliste, sometimes transliterated Kallisti, 'For the most beautiful one'), into the wedding party. Three goddesses claimed the apple: Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. Paris of Troy was appointed to select the recipient. After being bribed by both Hera and Athena, Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. He awarded the apple to Aphrodite, thus indirectly causing the Trojan War.
The apple was thus considered, in ancient Greece, to be sacred to Aphrodite, and to throw an apple at someone was to symbolically declare one's love; and similarly, to catch it was to symbolically show one's acceptance of that love.[20] An epigram claiming authorship by Plato states:
I throw the apple at you, and if you are willing to love me, take it and share your girlhood with me; but if your thoughts are what I pray they are not, even then take it, and consider how short-lived is beauty.
—Plato, Epigram VII[21]
Adam and Eve
Showcasing the apple as a symbol of sin.
Albrecht Dürer, 1507
Atalanta, also of Greek mythology, raced all her suitors in an attempt to avoid marriage. She outran all but Hippomenes (a.k.a. Melanion, a name possibly derived from melon the Greek word for both "apple" and fruit in general), [17] who defeated her by cunning, not speed. Hippomenes knew that he could not win in a fair race, so he used three golden apples (gifts of Aphrodite, the goddess of love) to distract Atalanta. It took all three apples and all of his speed, but Hippomenes was finally successful, winning the race and Atalanta's hand.[16]
[edit]The Apple in the Garden of Eden
Though the forbidden fruit in the Book of Genesis is not identified, popular Christian tradition has held that it was an apple that Eve coaxed Adam to share with her.[22] This may have been the result of Renaissance painters adding elements of Greek mythology into biblical scenes (alternative interpretations also based on Greek mythology occasionally replace the apple with a pomegranate). In this case the unnamed fruit of Eden became an apple under the influence of story of the golden apples in the Garden of Hesperides. As a result, in the story of Adam and Eve, the apple became a symbol for knowledge, immortality, temptation, the fall of man into sin, and sin itself. In Latin, the words for "apple" and for "evil" are similar (m?lum "an apple", m?lum "an evil, a misfortune"). This may also have influenced the apple becoming interpreted as the biblical "forbidden fruit". The larynx in the human throat has been called Adam's apple because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in the throat of Adam.[22] The apple as symbol of sexual seduction has been used to imply sexuality between men, possibly in an ironic vein.[22]
[edit]Apple cultivars
Main article: List of apple cultivars
Different kinds of apple cultivars in a supermarket
Apple cultivated in Nepal
'Sundown' apple cultivar and its cross section
There are more than 7, 500 known cultivars of apples.[23] Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. One large collection of over 2, 100[24] apple cultivars is housed at the National Fruit Collection in England. Most of these cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), though some are cultivated specifically for cooking (cooking apples) or producing cider. Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavour that dessert apples cannot.[25]
Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desired qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colourful skin, absence of russeting, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, typical 'Red Delicious' apple shape, and popular flavour.[2] Modern apples are generally sweeter than older cultivars, as popular tastes in apples have varied over time. Most North Americans and Europeans favour sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following.[26] Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavour are popular in Asia[26] and especially India.[25]
Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and have a variety of textures and colours. Some find them to have a better flavour than modern cultivars, [27] but may have other problems which make them commercially unviable, such as low yield, liability to disease, or poor tolerance for storage or transport. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been kept alive by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance exist; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. In the United Kingdom, old cultivars such as 'Cox's Orange Pippin' and 'Egremont Russet' are still commercially important even though by modern standards they are low yielding and disease prone.[4] |
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Apple production
[edit]Apple breeding
Apple blossom from an old Ayrshire variety
Apple pot
In the wild, apples grow quite readily from seeds. However, like most perennial fruits, apples are ordinarily propagated asexually by grafting. This is because seedling apples are an example of "extreme heterozygotes", in that rather than inheriting DNA from their parents to create a new apple with those characteristics, they are instead different from their parents, sometimes radically.[28] Triploids have an additional reproductive barrier in that the 3 sets of chromosomes cannot be divided evenly during meiosis, yielding unequal segregation of the chromosomes (aneuploids). Even in the very unusual case when a triploid plant can produce a seed (apples are an example), it happens infrequently, and seedlings rarely survive.[29] Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics.[30] The words 'seedling', 'pippin', and 'kernel' in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form bud sports (mutations on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars.[31]
Breeders can produce more rigid apples through crossing.[32] For example, the Excelsior Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by backyard orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. Its most important introductions have included 'Haralson' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and 'Honeycrisp'.
Apples have been acclimatized in Ecuador at very high altitudes, where they provide crops twice per year because of constant temperate conditions in a whole year.[33]
[edit]Apple rootstocks
See also: Malling series
Rootstocks used to control tree size have been used in apple cultivation for over 2, 000 years. Dwarfing rootstocks were probably discovered by chance in Asia. Alexander the Great sent samples of dwarf apple trees back to his teacher, Aristotle, in Greece. They were maintained at the Lyceum, a center of learning in Greece.
Most modern apple rootstocks were bred in the 20th century. Much research into the existing rootstocks was begun at the East Malling Research Station in Kent, England. Following that research, Malling worked with the John Innes Institute and Long Ashton to produce a series of different rootstocks with disease resistance and a range of different sizes, which have been used all over the world.
[edit]Pollination
See also: Fruit tree pollination
Apple tree in flower
Orchard mason bee on apple bloom, British Columbia, Canada
Apples are self-incompatible; they must cross-pollinate to develop fruit. During the flowering each season, apple growers usually provide pollinators to carry the pollen. Honey bees are most commonly used. Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Bumblebee queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinators.[31]
There are four to seven pollination groups in apples, depending on climate:
Group A – Early flowering, May 1 to 3 in England (Gravenstein, Red Astrachan)
Group B – May 4 to 7 (Idared, McIntosh)
Group C – Mid-season flowering, May 8 to 11 (Granny Smith, Cox's Orange Pippin)
Group D – Mid/late season flowering, May 12 to 15 (Golden Delicious, Calville blanc d'hiver)
Group E – Late flowering, May 16 to 18 (Braeburn, Reinette d'Orléans)
Group F – May 19 to 23 (Suntan)
Group H – May 24 to 28 (Court-Pendu Gris) (also called Court-Pendu plat)
One cultivar can be pollinated by a compatible cultivar from the same group or close (A with A, or A with B, but not A with C or D).[34]
Varieties are sometimes classed as to the day of peak bloom in the average 30 day blossom period, with pollinizers selected from varieties within a 6 day overlap period.
[edit]Maturation and harvest
See also: Fruit picking and Fruit tree pruning
Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, will grow very large, which allows them to bear much more fruit, but makes harvesting very difficult. Mature trees typically bear 40–200 kilograms (88–440 lb) of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. Dwarf trees will bear about 10–80 kilograms (22–180 lb) of fruit per year.[31]
[edit]Storage
Commercially, apples can be stored for some months in controlled-atmosphere chambers to delay ethylene-induced onset of ripening. The apples are commonly stored in chambers with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide with high air filtration. This prevents ethylene concentrations from rising to higher amounts and preventing ripening from moving too quickly. Ripening continues when the fruit is removed.[35] For home storage, most varieties of apple can be held for approximately two weeks when kept at the coolest part of the refrigerator (i.e. below 5°C). Some types, including the Granny Smith and Fuji, have a longer shelf life.[36]
[edit]Pests and diseases
Leaves with significant insect damage
Main article: List of apple diseases
See also: List of Lepidoptera that feed on apple trees
The trees are susceptible to a number of fungal and bacterial diseases and insect pests. Many commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orchard management is the use of organic methods. These use a less aggressive and direct methods of conventional farming. Instead of spraying potent chemicals, often shown to be potentially dangerous and maleficent to the tree in the long run, organic methods include encouraging or discouraging certain cycles and pests. To control a specific pest, organic growers might encourage the prosperity of its natural predator instead of outright killing it, and with it the natural biochemistry around the tree. Organic apples generally have the same or greater taste than conventionally grown apples, with reduced cosmetic appearances.[37]
A wide range of pests and diseases can affect the plant; three of the more common diseases/pests are mildew, aphids and apple scab.
Mildew: which is characterized by light grey powdery patches appearing on the leaves, shoots and flowers, normally in spring. The flowers will turn a creamy yellow colour and will not develop correctly. This can be treated in a manner not dissimilar from treating Botrytis; eliminating the conditions which caused the disease in the first place and burning the infected plants are among the recommended actions to take.[38][38]
Feeding aphids
Aphids: There are five species of aphids commonly found on apples: apple grain aphid, rosy apple aphid, apple aphid, spirea aphid and the woolly apple aphid. The aphid species can be identified by their colour, the time of year when they are present and by differences in the cornicles, which are small paired projections from the rear of aphids.[38] Aphids feed on foliage using needle-like mouth parts to suck out plant juices. When present in high numbers, certain species reduce tree growth and vigor.[39]
Apple scab: Symptoms of scab are olive-green or brown blotches on the leaves.[40] The blotches turn more brown as time progresses, then brown scabs form on the fruit.[38] The diseased leaves will fall early and the fruit will become increasingly covered in scabs - eventually the fruit skin will crack. Although there are chemicals to treat scab, their use might not be encouraged as they are quite often systematic, which means they are absorbed by the tree, and spread throughout the fruit.[40]
Among the most serious disease problems are fireblight, a bacterial disease; and Gymnosporangium rust, and black spot, two fungal diseases.[39]
Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft bark of the trees, especially in winter.
[edit]Records
Guinness World Records reports that the heaviest apple known weighed 1.849 kg (4 lb 1 oz) and was grown in Hirosaki city, Japan in 2005.[41]
[edit]Commerce
Apple output in 2005
At least 55 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2005, with a value of about $10 billion. About two-fifths of this total was produced in China.[42] More than 7.5% world production occurs in the United States.[30]
In the United States, more than 60% of all the apples sold commercially are grown in Washington state.[43] Imported apples from New Zealand and other more temperate areas are competing with US production and increasing each year.[42]
Most of Australia's apple production is for domestic consumption. Imports from New Zealand have been disallowed under quarantine regulations for fireblight since 1921.[44]
The largest exporters of apples in 2006 were China, Chile, Italy, France and the U.S., while the biggest importers in the same year were Russia, Germany, the UK and the Netherlands.[45] |
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Human consumption
See also: Cooking apple and Cider apple
Apples can be canned or juiced. They are milled to produce apple cider (non-alcoholic, sweet cider) and filtered for apple juice. The juice can be fermented to make cider (alcoholic, hard cider), ciderkin, and vinegar. Through distillation, various alcoholic beverages can be produced, such as applejack, Calvados, [46] and apfelwein. Pectin and apple seed oil may also produced.
Apples are an important ingredient in many desserts, such as apple pie, apple crumble, apple crisp and apple cake. They are often eaten baked or stewed, and they can also be dried and eaten or reconstituted (soaked in water, alcohol or some other liquid) for later use. Puréed apples are generally known as apple sauce. Apples are also made into apple butter and apple jelly. They are also used (cooked) in meat dishes.
In the UK, a toffee apple is a traditional confection made by coating an apple in hot toffee and allowing it to cool. Similar treats in the US are candy apples (coated in a hard shell of crystallised sugar syrup), and caramel apples, coated with cooled caramel.
Apples are eaten with honey at the Jewish New Year of Rosh Hashanah to symbolize a sweet new year.[46]
Farms with apple orchards may open them to the public, so consumers may themselves pick the apples they will buy.[46]
Sliced apples turn brown with exposure to air due to the conversion of natural phenolic substances into melanin upon exposure to oxygen.[47] Different cultivars vary in their propensity to brown after slicing.[48] Sliced fruit can be treated with acidulated water to prevent this effect.[47]
Organic apples are commonly produced in the United States.[49] Organic production is difficult in Europe, though a few orchards have done so with commercial success, [49] using disease-resistant cultivars and the very best cultural controls. The latest tool in the organic repertoire is a spray of a light coating of kaolin clay, which forms a physical barrier to some pests, and also helps prevent apple sun scald.[31][49]
[edit]Fallen apples
This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (March 2010)
Eating fallen apples (known in the UK as 'windfalls'), rather than picking directly from the tree, is generally safe. There may be a risk of food poisoning if the orchard is also the area of keeping cattle or other animals, which may contaminate the apples with feces. Still, the risk may be significantly higher if the apples are used to make home-made unpasteurized, unfermented cider[50] or juice, thus letting E. coli multiply.[51]
On the other hand, if the apples are eaten unprocessed, and kept free from risk of contamination with animal feces, then eating fallen apples is generally safe, even if there is some general decay or worms in them. Still, they may be submerged in water with salt added, which kills the worms.[52] Apparent molds may be largely removed by putting in water with some vinegar added, [52] but if they are of a large quantity, then there might be mold or mold products left to evoke mold health issues such as allergic reactions and respiratory problems.
[edit]Apple allergy
Oral allergy syndrome is an allergic reaction some people will experience due to the birch pollen left on the apples.[53][54] Because the pollen is the main irritant, only the raw apples, especially their skin, cause the allergic reaction. Cooked apples do not cause these symptoms as the heat denatures the proteins in the pollen, rendering them harmless to those sensitive. If one is allergic to apples, he or she may also experience an allergic reaction with other fruits in the Rosaceae family which include peaches and hazelnuts.[53]
[edit]Symptoms
Symptoms vary from person to person but are generally mild. This typically includes the sensation of itching and swelling around the mouth and lips. Other symptoms include watery eyes, runny nose and sneezing. Hives may develop in those who have a high sensitivity to the pollen. Abdominal pain and diarrhea may also occur.[53]
[edit]Health benefits
Apples, with skin (edible parts)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 218 kJ (52 kcal)
Carbohydrates 13.81 g
Sugars 10.39 g
Dietary fiber 2.4 g
Fat 0.17 g
Protein 0.26 g
Water 85.56 g
Vitamin A equiv. 3 ?g (0%)
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.017 mg (1%)
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.026 mg (2%)
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.091 mg (1%)
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.061 mg (1%)
Vitamin B6 0.041 mg (3%)
Folate (Vit. B9) 3 ?g (1%)
Vitamin C 4.6 mg (8%)
Calcium 6 mg (1%)
Iron 0.12 mg (1%)
Magnesium 5 mg (1%)
Phosphorus 11 mg (2%)
Potassium 107 mg (2%)
Zinc 0.04 mg (0%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
Health benefits of apple consumption.[55][56][57][58]
The proverb "An apple a day keeps the doctor away.", addressing the health effects of the fruit, dates from the 19th century Wales.[59] Research suggests that apples may reduce the risk of colon cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer.[55] Compared to many other fruits and vegetables, apples contain relatively low amounts of vitamin C, but are a rich source of other antioxidant compounds.[47] The fiber content, while less than in most other fruits, helps regulate bowel movements and may thus reduce the risk of colon cancer. They may also help with heart disease, [60] weight loss, [60] and controlling cholesterol. The fiber contained in apples reduces cholesterol by preventing reabsorption, and (like most fruits and vegetables) they are bulky for their caloric content.[57][60]
There is evidence that in vitro apples possess phenolic compounds which may be cancer-protective and demonstrate antioxidant activity.[61] The predominant phenolic phytochemicals in apples are quercetin, epicatechin, and procyanidin B2.[62]
Apple juice concentrate has been found to increase the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in mice, providing a potential mechanism for the "prevention of the decline in cognitive performance that accompanies dietary and genetic deficiencies and aging." Other studies have shown an "alleviat[ion of] oxidative damage and cognitive decline" in mice after the administration of apple juice.[58]
Researchers at the Chinese University of Hong Kong discovered that fruit flies who were fed an apple extract lived 10 percent longer than other flies who were fed a normal diet. [63]
However, apple seeds are mildly poisonous, containing a small amount of amygdalin, a cyanogenic glycoside; it usually is not enough to be dangerous to humans, but can deter birds.[64] |
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Honeycrisp (Malus domestica 'Honeycrisp') is an apple cultivar developed at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station's Horticultural Research Center at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. Designated in 1974 as the MN 1711, and released in 1991, the Honeycrisp, once slated to be discarded, has rapidly become a prized commercial commodity, as its sweetness, firmness, and tartness make it an ideal apple for eating raw. The Honeycrisp also retains its pigment well and boasts a relatively long shelf life when stored in cool, dry conditions.[1]
U.S. Plant Patent 7197 and Report 225-1992 (AD-MR-5877-B) from the Horticultural Research Center indicate that the Honeycrisp is a hybrid of the apple cultivars Macoun and Honeygold. However, genetic fingerprinting conducted by a group of researchers, which included those who were later attributed on the patent, determined that neither of these cultivars is a parent of the Honeycrisp, but that the Keepsake (another apple developed by the same University of Minnesota crossbreeding program) is one of the parents. The other parent has not been identified, but it might be a numbered selection that could have been discarded since.[2] According to the US Patent office, the Patent was filed November 7, 1988. As a result, the patent has now expired.[3]
For the sake of commercial production, Honeycrisp apple trees are not self-fruitful, as trees grown from the seeds of Honeycrisp apples will be hybrids of Honeycrisp and the pollinator.[4]
In 2006, the Andersen Elementary school in Bayport petitioned for the Minnesota state legislature to make the Honeycrisp apple the state fruit; the bill was passed in May 2006.
As a result of the Honeycrisp apple's growing popularity, the government of Nova Scotia has encouraged its local orchards to increase their supplies through the Honeycrisp Orchard Renewal Program. From 2005 until 2010, apple producers in Nova Scotia can replace older apple trees with Honeycrisp trees at a subsidized rate. Many orchards in the Annapolis Valley on the Bay of Fundy have mature trees and plentiful supplies of Honeycrisps throughout the harvest season. Apple growers in New Zealand's South Island are looking to start growing Honeycrisp to supply consumers during the US off season. [5] |
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Gala is a clonally propagated apple with a mild and sweet flavor. Gala apples ranked at number 2 in 2006 on the US Apple Association's list of most popular apples, after Red Delicious and before Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, and Fuji (in order).[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Appearance and flavor
2 History
2.1 Sports (mutations)
3 Descendent cultivar(s)
4 Season
5 Royal Gala cultigen
6 Storage
7 External links
8 Footnotes
[edit]Appearance and flavor
Gala apples are small and are usually red with a portion being greenish or yellow-green, vertically striped. Gala apples are fairly resistant to bruising and are sweet, grainy, with a mild flavor and a thinner skin than most apples. Quality indices include firmness, crispness, and sweetness.
[edit]History
The first Gala apple tree was one of many seedlings resulting from a cross between a Golden Delicious and a Kidd's Orange Red planted in New Zealand in the 1930s by orchardist J.H. Kidd. Donald W. McKenzie, an employee of Stark Bros Nursery, obtained a US plant patent for the cultivar on October 15, 1974.[2] The variety is also an increasingly popular option for UK top fruit farmers. It is a relatively new introduction to the UK, first planted in commercial volumes during the 1980s. The variety now represents about 20% of the total volume of the commercial production of eating apples grown in the UK, often replacing Cox's Orange Pippin.
[edit]Sports (mutations)
Many sports of Gala have been selected, mostly for increased red color, including the popular Royal Gala. The original cultivar produced fruit with orange stripes and a partial orange blush over a yellow background. Since then, several un-patented sports have been recognized. Additionally, more than twenty sports have received US plant patents: |
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Season
Gala apples are grown from May through September in the northern hemisphere, but, like most apples, are available almost all year through the use of cold storage and controlled atmosphere storage. Australian Gala are available from late January. California fruit is available until October. While the season usually lasts only 9 or 10 months, they are able to last all year round. However due to some apples continuing to be grown in some orchards, and the fact that they can be refrigerated for some months, leads to the availability of the Gala apple year round in some Australian markets. These usually taste different (slightly less sweet) from those in season.The UK season begins in late summer (August) with picking through to October. Storage makes the UK fruit available nearly year round as with fruit from other origins.
[edit]Royal Gala cultigen
Royal Gala is a cultigen made from a sport of the Gala apple in the 1970s. It is a pink-red dessert apple and is therefore usually eaten fresh. Royal Galas are usually harvested in early to late February in the southern hemisphere.
[edit]Storage |
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| What the hell? Just looking for info on APX/Vivint!!! |
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Fruit tree propagation is usually carried out through asexual reproduction by grafting or budding the desired variety onto a suitable rootstock.
Perennial plants can be propagated either by sexual or vegetative means. Sexual reproduction begins when a male germ cell (pollen) from one flower fertilises a female germ cell (ovule, incipient seed) of the same species, initiating the development of a fruit containing seeds. Each seed, when germinated, can grow to become a new specimen tree. However, the new tree inherits characteristics of both its parents, and it will not grow 'true' to the variety of either parent from which it came. That is, it will be a fresh individual with an unpredictable combination of characteristics of its own. Although this is desirable in terms of producing novel combinations from the richness of the gene pool of the two parent plants (such sexual recombination is the source of new cultivars), only rarely will the resulting new fruit tree be directly useful or attractive to the tastes of humankind. Most new plants will have characteristics that lie somewhere between those of the two parents.
Therefore, from the orchard grower or gardener's point of view, it is preferable to propagate fruit cultivars vegetatively in order to ensure reliability. This involves taking a cutting (or scion) of wood from a desirable parent tree which is then grown on to produce a new plant or 'clone' of the original. In effect this means that the original Bramley apple tree, for example, was a successful variety grown from a pip, but that every Bramley since then has been propagated by taking cuttings of living matter from that tree, or one of its descendants.
Contents [hide]
1 Methods
1.1 Bud grafting
1.2 Whip and Tongue grafting
2 Apple Rootstocks
3 Pear Rootstocks
4 Cherries
5 Plums
6 Own-Root Fruit Trees
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Methods
The essentials of our present methods of propagating of fruit trees date from pre-Classical times. Grafting as a technique was first developed in China from where it was imported to Greece and Rome. Classical authors wrote extensively about the technical skills of fruit cultivation, including grafting techniques and rootstock selection. The oldest surviving named varieties of fruits date from classical times.
The simplest method of propagating a tree asexually is rooting. A cutting (a piece of the parent plant) is cut and stuck into soil. Artificial rooting hormones are sometimes used to assure success. If the cutting does not die of desiccation first, roots grow from the buried portion of the cutting to become a complete plant. Though this works well for some plants (such as figs and olives), most fruit trees are unsuited to this method.
Root cuttings (pieces of root induced to grow a new trunk) are used with some kinds of plants. This method also is suitable only for some plants.
A refinement on rooting is layering. This is rooting a piece of a wood that is still attached to its parent and continues to receive nourishment from it. The new plant is severed only after it has successfully grown roots. Layering is the technique most used for propagation of clonal apple rootstocks.
The most common method of propagating fruit trees, suitable for nearly all species, is grafting onto rootstocks. These are varieties selected for characteristics such as their vigour of growth, hardiness, soil tolerance, and compatibility with the desired variety that will form the aerial part of the plant (called the scion). For example, grape rootstocks descended from North American grapes allow European grapes to be grown in areas infested with Phylloxera, a soil-dwelling insect that attacks and kills European grapes when grown on their own roots. Grafting is the process of joining these two varieties, ensuring maximum contact between the cambium tissue (that is, the layer of growing plant material just below the bark) of each so that they grow together successfully. Two of the most common grafting techniques are 'whip and tongue', carried out in spring as the sap rises, and 'budding', which is performed around the end of summer.
Bud grafting
Diagram illustrating the bud grafting technique
See also Shield budding
Cut a slice of bud and bark from the parent tree.
Cut a similar sliver off the rootstock, making a little lip at the base to slot the scion into.
Join the two together and bind.
In time, the scion bud will grow into a shoot, which will develop into the desired tree.
Whip and Tongue grafting
Diagram illustrating the whip and tongue grafting technique
Make a sloping cut in the rootstock with a 'tongue
Make a matching cut in the scion wood with a 'tongue' pointing downwards.
Join the two, ensuring maximum contact of the cambium[disambiguation needed] layers. Bind with raffia or polythene tape or wound around with a 5mm wide strip of elastic band (this is particularly successful because it keeps pressure on the cambium layers to be joined and eventually falls away with out cutting into the bark as the tree grows) (and seal with grafting wax.
Apple Rootstocks
Another reason for grafting onto rootstocks is that this enables the grower to determine the tree's eventual size. Apple tree size classes number one to ten in increasing height and breadth.[1] A "1" is a dwarf which can be productive and as short as three(3) feet with proper pruning. A "10" is the standard sized tree with no dwarfing and will grow to twenty(20) or more feet tall and wide, dependent upon the variety chosen. In general the class range is (1) 10-20% of full size, (2) 20-30%, (3) 30-40% and so forth to size 10 which is 100% of full size.
Apple tree rootstocks are referred to by numbers prefixed by letters indicating the developer of the rootstock.
"M" designates Malling series developed stocks. East Malling Research is a pioneer in the development of dwarfing rootstocks. East Malling Research Station in Kent, England collected clones of the Paradise stocks from France in 1912 from which 24 "M" were designated with no particular order to the rootstock characteristics other than where they were located in the garden at the time the numbers were assigned. In other words, M.2 is larger tree than M.9 while M.27 is smaller than M.26.[2]
"MM" designates Malling-Merton stocks developed from joint breeding program by John Innes Institute, in Merton, England, & East Malling Research Station in the early 1950s.[3] The "MM" series was developed primarily to provide resistance to Woolly Apple Aphid(Eriosomatinae) infestation.[4]
"EMLA" designates East Malling / Long Ashton research stations who took the "M" stocks and developed virus free versions. E.g., EMLA 7 is M 7 with a guaranteed virus free stock.[5] EMLA characteristics are often different from the parent "M" rootstock. Note that nearly all the apple rootstocks in the industry are now virus free.[6]
"CG" or "G" designates Cornell-Geneva stocks which are those developed via the Cornell & USDA collaboration at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva, NY. The "G" is the old designation. All newer stocks are "CG" followed by numbers that actually provide some information about the stock. As one might surmise, this is a huge improvement in the classical naming scheme which has no identification method at all.[7]
Diagram illustrating comparative sizes of apple trees depending on rootstock grafting
M.27 Malling 27: A very dwarfing rootstock. Unless the central leader is supported, the tree will be very small. Often only used as an intermediate stem piece on MM.106 or MM.111. If handled and spaced properly, it can be a very productive stock for a vertical axe system.[5] Trees can be grown three to four feet tall and produce about 45 fruit, roughly 2 pecks, depending on fruit cultivar.[8]
M.9: Very dwarfing - Reaches a height of 8 to 10 ft (2.4 to 3.0 m), coming into fruit after 3–4 years, reaching full capacity of 50 to 65 pounds (23 to 29 kg) after 5 to 6 years. It will grow under average soil conditions, but needs a good rich soil to thrive. A good choice where space is limited and fertility is high. Permanent staking is required, as is routine feeding and watering.[citation needed] Trees on this rootstock always require leader support. The rootstock is very susceptible to fire blight and can develop burr knots.[5]
G.41 Geneva 41, released in 2005, produces trees the size of M.9. The rootstock was developed from a cross between M.27 and Robusta 5 made in 1975. Resistant to Crown|Collar|Root rot(Phytopthora) and fire blight.[5]
M.26: Dwarfing - Similar to M9 in effect, although somewhat more vigorous and generally stronger, with a higher expected eventual yield of 65–75 pounds (29–34 kg) and height of 8 to 10 ft (2.4 to 3.0 m). A good choice where soil quality is average and compact growth is required. Comes into fruit after 3–4 years, reaching full cropping capacity after 5 to 6 years. Staking needed for first five years of its life.[citation needed] It is susceptible to collar rot and fire blight and should not be planted in a wet site. Certain varieties when grafted onto this rootstock may exhibit signs of graft union incompatibility(i.e., the union breaks).[5]
G.11 Geneva 11 is the second release of the Cornell breeding program similar in size to M.26(Class 4) but more productive. Has the advantage of being resistant to fire blight and crown rot as well as only rarely producing suckers or burr knots.[5]
G.202 Geneva 202(CG 5202) is a semidwarfing rootstock that produces a tree in class 5 slightly larger than M.26(Size Class 4) and is more productive than M.26. It was developed from a cross of M.27(Size Class 1) and Robusta 5 to be fire blight and Phytopthora resistant as well as having resistance to woolly apple aphids. In a 9-year study with the scion cultivar of the "Liberty" apple, G.202 was about 50 percent smaller than M.7 but had much greater production efficiency.[5]
M.7 Malling 7 rootstock produces a semidwarf tree of Class 6[1] that is freestanding in deep well drained soils but in rocky, steep, or shallow soils, it tends to lean. The rootstock may sucker profusely and is susceptible to collar rot(Phytopthora).[5]
MM.106: Semi-dwarfing - Sometimes referred to as semi-vigorous, this is the most widely used of rootstocks.[citation needed] It is probably the best choice for the average garden under average conditions, being tolerant of a wide range of soils, and producing a tree with an eventual size of 14 to 18 ft (4.3 to 5.5 m).[citation needed] Trees on this stock begin producing fruit within three to four years, and yield 90 to 110 pounds (41 to 50 kg) after some seven or eight years.[citation needed] MM106 is very suitable for use with weaker varieties that would produce under sized bushes with more dwarfing rootstocks. Can be trained as a half standard tree, but is rather too vigorous for cordons unless the soil is poor. Requires staking for the first five years or so of its life.[citation needed] Trees on MM.106 are highly susceptible to collar rot especially when planted in soils that remain wet(poor percolation).[5]
M.111 : Vigorous - Not generally suitable for garden scale growing, being both too large and spreading (18-25'), and too slow to come into cropping. They are however suitable for growing as specimen standards in the large garden, or for producing medium sized bushes on poorer soils. Begins to fruit after six or seven years, reaching full capacity of 160 to 360 lb (73 to 160 kg) after eight to nine years.[citation needed] It is the most cold-hardy rootstock readily available. Planting depth of this rootstock is critical. The union should be no higher than 1 to 2 inches above the final soil line.[5]
M.25: Very vigorous - Suitable for a grassed orchard, and to grow on as a full standard. Plant 20 ft (6.1 m) apart, makes a tree of 15 to 20 ft (4.6 to 6.1 m) or more height and spread, eventually yielding 200 to 400 lb (91 to 180 kg) per tree.[citation needed] This rootstock is primarily used in UK and is rarely seen in USA where M.111(size Class 8)[1] is used for this size tree.
Seedling: Very vigorous trees produced on a rootstock grown from seed. There is greater variability than with the vegetatively propagated rootstocks. Apples used for production of seedling rootstocks include 'Dolgo' and 'Antonovka', which are both extremely hardy and vigorous.[citation needed]
That is only a sample of some of the more important current apple rootstocks that are available. There are at least a hundred more that have been developed to either provide enhancement or prevent potential damage from one kind of pest or another.
The problem with growing fruit trees, especially apple trees, is that they are subject to many different types of damage from bacteria, fungi and insects. The general approach of the commercial industry has been to use as many chemicals as necessary to insure attractive and marketable fruit. The attitude, still prevalent, has been "Who cares? Nobody eats a tree!" [9] but as environmental problems increase and the general public pushes for low or no-spray fruit, there has become a commercial need for fruit that does not require such intensive spray programs. This is being achieved, albeit slowly, by rootstocks and trees that are bred to have natural disease and pest resistance.
The Malling series and clones have been standard rootstocks for apples for many years and remain the standard "workhorses" for the commercial industry in the USA[5] and the UK. However, since most of them are susceptible to disease some Malling rootstocks are being replaced by new breeds, including the Cornell-Geneva series. One of the newest rootstocks, only released commercially in 2004, is CG5202(G.202) which adds resistance to the woolly apple aphid(WAA) for the "CG" series of stocks which already has resistance to the major problems preventing quality production of apples utilizing organic control systems. Combined with highly resistant trees such as "Liberty" it is showing great potential.[10][11]
That leads to another characteristic of rootstocks that is or can be bred into them: environmental adaptability. This may be tolerance to wet|dry soil conditions, acidity|alkalinity of soil or even hot|cold air temperature.[6]
Rootstocks based on Siberian Crab apple are being used in colder areas for more cold tolerance.[12]
The ability of rootstocks to modify or augment characteristics of fruit trees is limited and often disappointing in the final results. It takes ten years to get a full picture of the effects of any one rootstock so a rootstock that appears promising in the first five years of a trial may fail in the last five years. The Mark (apple) rootstock was such a stock and has now fallen mostly into disfavor.[5] Another, the G.30, has proved to be an excellent stock for production but it was only after a number of years of trials that it was found to be somewhat incompatible with "Gala" apple(and possibly others) so that it is now recommended to be staked and wired.[5]
To get a clear picture and push the industry forward, a consortium was founded and the so-called "NC-140" trials of rootstocks began.[13] These test many pome rootstocks in many different sites across the USA and thereby provide growers, be they backyard or commercial, a clearer picture of what to expect when growing fruit trees on specific stock, in specific planting methods in their specific area of the USA. As one can imagine, this has the potential for a large economic benefit to both growers and consumers as well as going a long way to eliminating the need to spray pesticides as frequently as is currently required.[14]
Pear Rootstocks
Pears are usually grafted onto quince rootstocks, which produce small to medium sized trees. Some varieties however are not compatible with quince, and these require double working. This means that a piece of pear graft-work compatible with both the quince rootstock and the pear variety is used as an intermediate between the two. If this is not done the pear and the rootstock could eventually separate at the graft. Varieties that require double working include 'Bristol Cross', 'Dr Jules Guyot', 'Doyenné d' été' and 'Williams Bon Chrétien'.
Quince C: Moderately vigorous- Makes a bush pear tree about 8 to 18 ft (2.4 to 5.5 m) tall, bearing fruit within four to eight years. Suitable for highly fertile soils and vigorous varieties, but not where conditions are poor. Used for bush, cordon and espalier growing. Old stocks of Quince C may be infected with a virus, so care should be taken to obtain certified virus free stock. If in doubt, use Quince A as there is not a great amount of difference in vigour between the two.
Quince A: Medium vigour- Slightly more vigorous than Quince C, this is the most common variety upon which pears are grafted. Bears fruit between four to eight years, making a tree of some 10 to 20 ft (3.0 to 6.1 m) in height and spread. Suitable for all forms of pear trees except standards.
Pear stock: Very vigorous- Pears grafted onto pear rootstocks make very large standard trees, not suitable for most gardens.
Cherries
Until the 1970s, cherries were grown of the vigorous Malling F12/1, Mazzard (Prunus avium), or Maheleb (P. maheleb) rootstocks, which required much space and time before cropping began, thus the growing of cherries was not a realistic option on a garden scale. The introduction of the rootstock 'Colt' enables trees reaching a maximum height of 12 to 15 ft (3.7 to 4.6 m) to be grown, and if trained as a pyramid it is possible to restrict growth to about 10 ft (3.0 m). The popular sweet variety 'Stella' could even be grafted onto a 'Colt' rootstock and successfully grown in a pot on the patio.
Plums
Plum rootstocks include;
Pixy - A dwarfing rootstock, suitable for bush trees planted 8-10 (3 m) apart.
St. Julien A - A semi vigorous rootstock suitable for bush and half standards planted 12 to 15 ft (3.7 to 4.6 m) apart. Also suitable for peaches, nectarines and apricots.
Brompton or Myrobalan B- Suitable for half standards planted 18 to 22 ft (5.5 to 6.7 m) apart. Also suitable for peaches, nectarines and apricots.
Myro-29C - Semi-dwarf rootstock. Shallow, vigorous, good choice for hard soils. Somewhat drought tolerant.
Citation - Semi-dwarf rootstock. Shallow, vigorous, good choice for hard soils. Prefers a wetter soil.
Own-Root Fruit Trees
Many species of fruit are commonly grown on their own roots: fig, filbert, olive, pomegranate, gooseberry, bramble as there may be no great advantages to using a special rootstock and/or rootstocks are not available.
However, there can be many advantages to growing fruit trees which are commonly grafted on their own rootstock instead. These advantages include better tree health; fruit that is more distinctive to the variety and of better quality (shape, size and flavor) and that lasts longer in storage; trees with better fruit set; trees with better self pollination. Trees grown on their own roots can be more easily transplanted. And importantly, they can be used in the traditional coppicing systems advocated in both Sustainable agriculture and Permaculture. Disadvantages of using own root trees include excessive size, excessive production of wood (thus very long times until the start of fruit production), and a lack of research on the use of this technique in large scale systems. There are several techniques available to cause trees to start fruiting earlier including: withholding nitrogen and/or water (except in case of drought); training branches on the horizontal to induce budding, and limiting pruning to summer only.[15][16][17] |
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Pruning fruit trees is a technique that is employed by arboriculture to control growth, remove dead or diseased wood, and stimulate the formation of flowers and fruit buds. Pruning often means cutting branches back to laterals or back to the main stem using proper pruning techniques. It may also mean the removal of shoots (including stems), buds, leaves, etc. The most effective pruning is done early in the spring season, when buds begin to break and the soft tissue can be pinched off with just the fingers (hence the expression "nipped in the bud"). Many arborists follow the concept of "harvesting the sun" when pruning fruit trees. Many homeowners make the mistake of planting a fruit tree, then neglecting it until it begins to bear fruit. Careful attention to pruning and training young trees will ultimately determine their productivity and longevity. Good pruning and training will also prevent later injury from weak crotches (where a tree trunk splits into two or more branches) that break from the weight of fruit, snow, or ice on the branches.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Overview
2 Formative pruning of bush trees
2.1 Maiden tree
2.2 Two year
2.3 Three year
2.4 Four year
2.5 Five year and onwards
3 Pruning the cropping tree
4 Pruning of tip bearers
5 The no pruning option
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
[edit]Overview
An apple tree sprout being converted to a branched fruit bearing spur by an Arborist. Numbers show the sequence of cuts, which occurred during 2 years.
To obtain a better understanding of how to prune plants properly, it is useful to have some underlying knowledge of how pruning works, and how it affects the way in which plants grow.
Plants form new tissue in an area called the meristem, located near the tips of roots and shoots, where active cell division takes place. Meristem growth is aimed at ensuring that leaves are quickly elevated into sunlight, and that roots are able to penetrate deeply into the soil. Once adequate height and length is achieved by the stems and roots, they will begin to thicken to give support to the plant. On the shoots, these growing tips of the plant are known as apical buds. The apical meristem (or tip) produces the growth hormone auxin, which not only promotes cell division, but also diffuses downwards and inhibits the development of lateral bud growth which would otherwise compete with the apical tip for light and nutrients. Removing the apical tip and its suppressive hormone allows the lower dormant lateral buds to develop, and the buds between the leaf stalk and stem produce new shoots which compete to become the lead growth.
Manipulating this natural response to damage (known as the principle of apical dominance) by processes such as pruning (as well as coppicing and pollarding) allows the Arborist to determine the shape, size and productivity of many fruiting trees and bushes. The main aim when pruning fruit trees is usually to obtain a decent crop of fruit rather than a tree with an abundance of lush yet unproductive foliage. Unpruned trees tend to produce large crops of small, worthless[citation needed] fruit often damaged by pests and diseases, and much of the crop is out of reach at the top of the tree. Branches can become broken by the weight of the crop, and the cropping may become biennial (that is, only bearing fruit every other year). Overpruned trees on the other hand tend to produce light crops of large, flavourless fruit that does not store well. Pruning is therefore carried out to achieve a balance between shoot growth and fruit production.
[edit]Formative pruning of bush trees
During the early years of the tree's life, it is important to develop a framework that is sufficiently strong and capable of bearing the weight of crops borne. In order to reinforce the tree, formative pruning should be carried out.
Formative pruning of apple (Malus pumila) and pear (Pyrus communis) trees should be carried out during the dormant winter months. For the Northern hemisphere, this should occur between November and March; For the Southern hemisphere, June and September.
The pome and stone fruits--such as cherries, plums, or gages--have different requirements and should not be pruned during their dormant months.
One year old tree
Two year old tree
Three year old tree
Four year old tree
[edit]Maiden tree
A maiden whip (that is, a one year old tree with no side shoots) should be pruned to a bud with two buds below it at about 80 cm from the ground immediately after planting to produce primary branches during the first growing season. A feathered maiden (that is, a one year old tree with several side branches) should have its main stem pruned back to three or four strong shoots at 80 cm from the ground. Side shoots should be shortened by two thirds of their length to an upward or outward facing bud. Lower shoots should be removed flush with the stem.
[edit]Two year
Remove any lower shoots and prune between three and five of the best placed shoots by half to an upwards or outwards facing bud to form what will become the tree's main structural branches. Remove any inwards facing shoots.
[edit]Three year
Prune the leading shoots of branches selected to extend the framework by half to a bud facing in the desired direction. Select four good laterals to fill the framework and shorten these by a half. Prune any remaining laterals to four buds to form fruiting spurs.
[edit]Four year
The tree will have begun to fruit and only limited formative pruning is now required. Shorten leaders by one third and prune laterals not required to extend the framework to four buds.
[edit]Five year and onwards
The tree is considered to be established and should be annually pruned as described in the following section.
[edit]Pruning the cropping tree
Spur pruning
Before pruning it is important to distinguish between spur bearing varieties, tip bearing varieties, and an intermediate between the two that bears both on spurs and at the tips. Spur bearing trees occur much less frequently than tip bearing trees, and they bear most of their fruit yearly at the end of short lateral pieces of wood (spurs) up to about 4 inches long. Spur bearing types include apples of the varieties Cox's Orange Pippin, James Grieve and Sunset, and pears such as Conference, Doyenne du Commice and Williams Bon Chretien. Tip bearers on the other hand produce most of their fruit buds at the tips of slender shoots grown the previous summer, and include the apples Worcester Pearmain and Irish Peach, and the pears such as Jargonelle and Josephine de Malines. There are basically three types of pruning that are applied once the main shape of the tree has been established. These are:
Renewal pruning
Spur pruning:Spur bearing varieties form spurs naturally, but spur growth can also be induced.
Renewal pruning: This also depends on the tendency of many apple and pear trees to form flower buds on unpruned two year old laterals. It is a technique best utilised for the strong laterals on the outer part of the tree where there is room for such growth. Pruning long neglected fruit trees is a task that should be undertaken over a lengthy period, with not more than one third of the branches that require removal being taken each year.
Regulatory pruning: This is carried out on the tree as a whole, and is aimed at keeping the tree and its environment healthy, e.g., by keeping the centre open so that air can circulate, removing dead or diseased wood, preventing branches from becoming over crowded (branches should be roughly 50 cm apart and spurs not less than 25 cm apart along the branch framework), and preventing any branches from crossing.
[edit]Pruning of tip bearers
Tip bearers should be pruned lightly in winter using the regulatory system (see above). any maiden shoots less than 25 cm in length should be left untouched as they have fruit buds at their tips. Longer shoots are spur pruned to prevent over-crowding and to stimulate the production of more short tip bearing shoots the following year. Branch leaders are 'tipped', removing the top three or four buds to a bud facing in the desired direction to make them branch out and so produce more tip bearing shoots.
[edit]The no pruning option
The no-pruning option is usually ignored by fruit experts, though often practised by default in people's back gardens! But it has its advantages. Obviously it reduces work, and more surprisingly it can lead to higher overall yields.
—Patrick Whitefield, How to make a forest garden p16
Masanobu Fukuoka as part of his early experiments on his family farm in Japan experimented with no pruning methods, noting that he ended up killing many fruit trees by simply letting them go which resulted in convoluted and tangled, and thus unhealthy, branch patterns.[2][3] Then he realised this is the difference between natural-form fruit trees and the process of change of tree form resulting from abandoning previously-pruned unnatural fruit trees.[2][3] He concluded that the trees should be raised all their lives without pruning which would allow them to form healthy and efficient branch patterns following their natural inclination. This is part of his implementation of the Tao-philosophy of Wú wéi translated in part as no-action (against nature), and he described it as no unnecessary pruning, nature farming or "do-nothing" farming, of fruit trees, distinct from non-intervention or literal no pruning. He ultimately achieved yields that were comparable to or exceeded standard/intensive practices of using pruning and chemical fertilisation.[2][3][4]
Other sustainable agriculture or permaculture advocates have also practiced no-pruning methods with success[citation needed].
Sepp Holzer has also successfully used no-pruning methods on his high altitude farm in the Austrian Alps, [5] noting that under heavy winter snow loads, short pruned branches will break often killing the tree, but longer unpruned branches will bend down and touch the ground thus giving them another point of support and preventing breakage. |
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An orchard is an intentional planting of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit or nut-producing trees which are grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of large gardens, where they serve an aesthetic as well as a productive purpose.[1] A fruit garden is generally synonymous with an orchard, although it is set on a smaller non-commercial scale and may emphasize berry shrubs in preference to fruit trees.
Most temperate-zone orchards are laid out in a regular grid, with a grazed or mown grass or bare soil base that makes maintenance and fruit gathering easy.
Orchards are often concentrated near bodies of water, where climatic extremes are moderated and blossom time is retarded until frost danger is past.
The forest garden is a food production system that is closely related to the orchard. A move towards more ecologically-friendly coffee production has led to forest-garden production of coffee. Brazil nuts and rubber are produced in such a method in some areas.
Often, mixed orchards are planted. In Europe, quince is sometimes planted along with apples.
Contents [hide]
1 Meadow orchard (Streuobstwiese)
2 Crops
3 Layout
4 Orchards by region
5 Towns associated with orchards
6 Airports associated with orchards
7 Historical orchards
8 Orchard conservation and promotion organisations and schemes within England
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
[edit]Meadow orchard (Streuobstwiese)
Streuobstwiese (pl. Streuobstwiesen) is a German word that means a meadow with scattered fruit trees or fruit trees that are planted in a field.[2] Streuobstwiese, or a meadow orchard, [3] is a traditional landscape in the temperate, maritime climate of continental Western Europe. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Streuobstwiesen were a kind of a rural community orchard that were intended for productive cultivation of stone fruit. In recent years, ecologists have successfully lobbied for state subsidies to valuable habitats, biodiversity and natural landscapes, which are also used to preserve old meadow orchards. Both conventional and meadow orchards provide a suitable habitat for many animal species that live in a cultured landscape. A notable example is the hoopoe that nests in tree hollows of old fruit trees and, in the absence of alternative nesting sites, is threatened in many parts of Europe, because of the destruction of old orchards.[4]
[edit]Crops
Tropical areas
Acai
Banana
Cacao
Coconut
Coffee
Durian
Guava
Mango
Papaya
Rambutan
Tea
Subtropical areas
Avocado
Citrus
Custard-apple
Date Palm
Lychee
Macadamia nuts
Olive
Temperate areas
Almond
Apple
Apricots
Bayberry
Blackberry
Blueberry
Cherry
Chestnut
Cranberry
Ginkgo nuts
Governor's plum
Grape
Hazel nut
Peach
Pear
Pecan
Walnut
Persimmon
Plum
Raspberry
Sand pear
[edit]Layout
An orchard's layout is the technique of planting the crops in a proper system. There are different methods of planting and thus different layouts. Some of these layout types include:
Square method
Rectangular method
Quincunx method
Triangular method
Hexagonal (or Equilateral triangle) method
Contour (or Terracing) method
For different varieties, these systems may vary by some extent.
[edit]Orchards by region
Apple orchards in Azwell, Washington surrounding a community of pickers' cabins
Sour cherry orchard on Lake Erie shoreline (Leamington, Ontario)
The most extensive orchards in the United States are apple and orange orchards, although citrus orchards are more commonly called groves. The most extensive apple orchard area is in eastern Washington state, with a lesser but significant apple orchard area in most of Upstate New York. Extensive orange orchards are found in Florida and southern California. In eastern North America, many orchards are along the shores of Lake Michigan (such as the Fruit Ridge Region), Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario.
In Canada, apple and other fruit orchards are widespread on the Niagara Peninsula, south of Lake Ontario. This region is known as Canada Fruitland and, in addition to large-scale commercial fruit marketing, it is a favorite playground for "pick-your-own" activities in the summer.
Murcia is a major orchard area (or la huerta) in Europe, with citrus crops. New Zealand, China, Argentina and Chile also have extensive apple orchards.
[edit]Towns associated with orchards
Tenbury Wells in Worcestershire has been called The Town in the Orchard, since the 19th century, because it was surrounded by extensive orchards. Today, this heritage is celebrated through an annual Applefest.[5]
[edit]Airports associated with orchards
ORD
Orchard Field
[edit]Historical orchards
Old growth apple orchard in Ottawa, Canada
Orchard House in Concord, Massachusetts was the residence of American celebrated writer Louisa May Alcott.
Fruita, Utah part of Capitol Reef National Park has Mormon pioneer orchards maintained by the United States National Park Service.
[edit]Orchard conservation and promotion organisations and schemes within England
Natural England, through its Countryside Stewardship Scheme, Environmental Stewardship and Environmentally Sensitive Areas Scheme, gives grant aid and advice for the maintenance, enhancement or re-creation of historical orchards.[6]
The 'Orchard Link' organisation provides advice on how to manage and restore the county of Devon's orchards, as well as enabling the local community to use the local orchard produce.[7] An organisation called 'Orchards Live' carries out similar work in North Devon.[8]
The 'People's Trust for Endangered Species' aims to locate, assess and map every traditional orchard within England.[9]
The UK Biodiversity Partnership lists traditional orchards and a priority UK Biodiversity Action Plan habitat.[10]
The Wiltshire Traditional Orchards Project maps, conserves and restores traditional orchards within Wiltshire, England. |
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A cooking apple is an apple that is used primarily for cooking rather than eating fresh. Cooking apples are larger, and can be tarter than eating varieties. Some varieties have a firm flesh that doesn't break down much when cooked. The British grow a large range of apples specifically for cooking, but such varieties are used worldwide, although table (dessert) apples are also used for cooking purposes. Many apples are dual-purpose.
Cultivars can be divided into apples which are cooked whole (or in large segments) in the oven and become soft and fluffy, often aromatic (e.g. Newton Wonder or Peasgood Nonesuch). Other varieties are processed, as in pies or sauce, etc., such as Bramley or Golden Noble. Bramley is by far the most popular cooking apple in the UK.
Apples can be cooked down into sauce, apple butter or fruit preserves, baked in an oven and served with custard, and made into pies or apple crumble. In the UK apples are commonly boiled and mashed and served as apple sauce with roast pork.
A baked apple is one that has been baked in an oven until it has become soft. The core is usually removed and often stuffed with other fruits, brown sugar, raisins, or cinnamon.
Bramley apples
Red Gravenstein apples
Yellow Gravenstein
Cooking apple cultivars
Bramley (also used as an eating apple)
Crab apple (primarily for jelly)
Calville Blanc d'hiver
Edward VII
Empire
Golden Noble
Granny Smith (also used as an eating apple)
Gravenstein
Grenadier
Jonathan (also used as an eating apple)
James Grieve (also used as an eating apple)
McIntosh (also used as an eating apple)
Newton Wonder
Norfolk Biffin
Northern Spy
Peasgood Nonesuch
Pink Lady
Rhode Island Greening |
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The Granny Ramsey Smith green apple is a tip-bearing apple cultivar, which originated in Australia in 1868. It is named after Maria Ann Smith, who propagated the cultivar from a chance seedling. The tree is thought to be a hybrid of Malus sylvestris, the European Wild Apple, with the domestic apple M. domestica as the polleniser. Widely propagated in New Zealand, it was introduced to the United Kingdom c. 1935 and the United States in 1972 by Grady Auvil. The fruit has hard, light green skin and a crisp, juicy flesh. In some parts of Canada the Granny Smith is referred to as a Green Delicious.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Properties
3 Granny Smith in popular culture
4 References
[edit]History
Maria Ann Ramsey Sherwood Smith (1799–1870)
The cultivar originated in Australia in 1868 from a chance seedling propagated by Maria Ann Smith (née Sherwood, b. 1799, d. 9 March 1870), from whom comes the name.[1] The tree is thought to be a hybrid of Malus sylvestris, the European Wild Apple, with the domestic apple M. domestica as the polleniser. Widely propagated in New Zealand, it was introduced to the United Kingdom c. 1935 and the United States in 1972 by Grady Auvil.
[edit]Properties
This article may contain wording that merely promotes the subject without imparting verifiable information. Please remove or replace such wording, unless you can cite independent sources that support the characterization.
Apple, raw, with skin
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 218 kJ (52 kcal)
Carbohydrates 13.81 g
- Sugars 10.39 g
- Dietary fiber 2.4 g
Fat 0.17 g
Protein 0.26 g
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.017 mg (1%)
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.026 mg (2%)
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.091 mg (1%)
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.061 mg (1%)
Vitamin B6 0.041 mg (3%)
Folate (Vit. B9) 3 ?g (1%)
Vitamin C 4.6 mg (8%)
Calcium 6 mg (1%)
Iron 0.12 mg (1%)
Magnesium 5 mg (1%)
Phosphorus 11 mg (2%)
Potassium 107 mg (2%)
Zinc 0.04 mg (0%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
Granny Smith apples are light green in colour. They are eaten raw and commonly used in pie baking.
This cultivar needs fewer winter chill hours and a longer growing season to mature the fruit, so it is favoured for the milder areas of the apple growing regions. It is moderately susceptible to fire blight and is highly prone to scab, [2] powdery mildew, and cedar apple rust.
[edit]Granny Smith in popular culture
To this day, there is an annual Granny Smith Festival in Eastwood, New South Wales, at the end of October. The celebration marks not only the cultivar's local origins, but also that in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the orchards of Eastwood supplied apples to the Sydney region. Sydney, with its humid subtropical climate, is not ideally suited for growing apples, but Granny Smith did notably well while other cultivars struggled. With the advent of easier transport, apples are no longer grown commercially in the Sydney region.
The Beatles' Apple Records adopted a Granny Smith apple as its logo. |
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